‘Maladaptive perfec- tionism’ is also associated with unhealthy self-esteem. Normal perfectionists are reasonable and realistic about self-expectations and usually perform with a realization of their limitations and strengths. Maladaptive per- fectionists demand of themselves a higher level of performance than it is usually possible to attain (Rice, Ashby, & Slaney, 1998, pp. 304-305). Since their standards are high and unattain- able, they constantly experience a discrepancy between their ideal self and actual self. This creates self-esteem problems and a high level of anxiety
(Koivula, Hassmen, & Fallby, 2002, p. 865).
‘Self-serving bias’ is an attitude characterized by taking credit for personal success but blaming external factors for personal failure. A meta-an- alytic review of 175 articles has verified that individuals experience a momentary drop in self-esteem during feelings of self-threat and that to escape from this uncomfortable state they make self-serving attri butions or biases (Campbell & Sedikides, 1999, pp. 23-26). These self-serving biases are more present in success than in failure and low-self-esteem individuals showed more self-serving biases during failure (Miller & Ross, 1975, pp. 216-218). Therefore self-serving bias is a valid indication of self-esteem deficits.
Intergroup bias thinking is another attitude found among individuals with unhealthy self-esteem. The threats to self-esteem cause automatic intergroup biasing or auto- matic stereotyping of the subgroup to which one belongs.
Self benefits momentarily from controlling the anxiety by in group bias; but out groupers suffer from it. It will endanger the healthy balance of a society (Rudman, Dohn, &Fairchild, 2007, pp. 799-800). These subgroups can be based on culture, colour, religion, clan, caste etc. Unhealthy self-esteem encourages one to live with in-group biasing. whereas healthy self-esteem helps one to be open and cooperative with the common group without the barriers of caste, colour and culture.
‘Rigidity’ is a sign of self-esteem problems. Rigid people have a very fragile inner self. Their rigidity is usually a mask for their fear and mistrust. Here rigidity should not be misunderstood as having convictions based on strong faith or a specific theological bent. There can be rigid people among both liberals and conservatives. But rigid people fanatically cling to their inner simplistic modes of thought and do not accept any ideas that do not conform to their inflexible pattern. For them there is no possibility of change. They may experience stuck anger, a combination of fear and anger (Rossetti, 2004, pp. 761-762). This rigidity based on fear, anger and mistrust is obviously an expression of unhealthy self-esteem. Such people mask themselves with rigidity to confront their insecurity.
A self-handicapping strategy is found among low self-esteem people. This cognitive device helps them to focus on reasons why they are about to fail and it makes it easier for them not to be disappointed about the failure (Mruk, 2006b, p. 68). This pessimistic attitude is an unhealthy device to pro tect oneself from the possible threats to self-esteem resulting from failure. It is rather like searching for excuses for failure even though there is an equal chance of failing or succeeding (Crocker & Major, 1989, p. 612). But when one anticipates an event with a less positive outlook, it has more chance of ending in failure. Now the self-esteem of the individual is again in danger due to a lack of competence and success in daily tasks and life’s challenges. There- fore this pessimistic attitude clearly suggests an unhealthy self-esteem.
“Excessive social comparison is another attitude correlated with self-esteem defects. When self-es- teem is under threat an individual tends to engage in a process of comparison with others to retain his/ her self-esteem status. If there is still a danger, the individual will reduce the importance of the comparison domain or reduce the closeness of their relationship (Tesser, 2000, pp. 291-292). This is something more than a normal tendency to make a comparison between individuals in the same social situation and is a sign that one’s self-esteem is at stake. Therefore an exaggerated comparison between individuals definitely denotes self-esteem concerns.
In short, these six attitudes such – as self-serving bias, intergroup bias thinking, rigidity, exaggerated social comparison, self-handicap- ping strategy and maladaptive perfectionism are common among people with unhealthy self-esteem.