‘Maladaptive perfectionism’ is associated with unhealthy self-esteem. Normal perfectionists are reasonable and realistic about self-expectations and usually perform with a realization of their limitations and strengths. Maladaptive perfectionists demand of themselves a higher level of performance than it is usually possible to attain (Rice et al., 1998, pp. 304–305). Since their standards are high and unattainable, they constantly experience a discrepancy between their ideal self and actual self. This creates self-esteem problems and a (Koivula et al., 2002, p. 865).
‘Rigidity’ is another sign of self-esteem Rigid people tend to have a very fragile Their rigidity is usually a mask for their fear and mistrust. Here rigidity should not be misunderstood as having convictions based on strong faith or a specific theological bent. There can be rigid people among both liberals and conservatives. But rigid people fanatically cling to their inner simplistic modes of thought and do not accept any ideas that do not conform to their inflexible pattern. For them there is no possibility of change. They may experience stuck anger, a combination of fear and anger (Rossetti, 2004, pp. 761–762). This rigidity based on fear, anger and mistrust is obviously an expression of unhealthy SE. Such people mask themselves with rigidity to confront their insecurity.
A ‘self-handicapping strategy’ is found among low-self-esteem people. This cognitive device helps them to focus on reasons why they are about to fail and it makes it easier for them not to be disappointed about the failure (Mruk, 2006b, p. 68). This pessimistic attitude is an unhealthy device to protect oneself from the possible threats to self-esteem resulting from failure. It is rather like searching for excuses for failure even though there is an equal chance of failing or succeeding (Crocker & Major, 1989, p. 612). But when one anticipates an event with a less positive outlook, it has more chance of ending in failure. Now the self-esteem of the individual is again in danger due to a lack of competence and success in daily tasks and life’s challenges. Therefore, this pessimistic attitude clearly suggests an unhealthy SE.
‘Excessive social comparison’ is another attitude correlated with self esteem defects. When self-esteem is under threat an individual tends to engage in a process of comparison with others to retain his/herself-esteem status. If there is still a danger, the individual will reduce the importance of the comparison domain or reduce the closeness of their relationship (Tesser, 2000, pp. 291–292). This is something more than a normal tendency to make a comparison between individuals in the same social situation and is a sign that one’s self-esteem is at stake. Therefore, an exaggerated comparison between individuals definitely denotes self-esteem concerns.
‘Self-serving bias’ is an attitude that indicates unhealthy SE. It is characterized by taking credit for personal success but blaming external factors for personal failure. A meta-analytic review of 175 articles has verified that individuals experience a momentary drop in self-esteem during feelings of self-threat and that to escape from this uncomfortable state they make self-serving attributions or biases (Campbell & Sedikides, 1999, pp. 23–26). These self-serving biases are more present in success than in failure and low-SE individuals showed more self serving biases during failure (Miller & Ross, 1975, pp. 216–218). Therefore, self-serving bias is a valid indication of self-esteem deficits.
‘Intergroup bias thinking’ is another attitude found among unhealthy-SE individuals. The threats to selfesteem cause automatic intergroup biasing or automatic stereotyping of the subgroup to which one belongs. The individuals benefit momentarily from controlling the anxiety by in- group bias; but out-groupers suffer from it. It will endanger the healthy balance of a society (Rudman et al., 2007, pp. 799–800). These subgroups can be based on culture, colour, religion, clan or caste. Unhealthy self-esteem encourages one to live with in-group biasing, whereas healthy selfesteem helps one to be open and cooperative with the common group without the barriers of caste, colour and culture.